Tda 2.5 Schools as Organisations

TDA 2. 5 Schools as organisations Task 1 Links to learning outcome 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, assessment criteria 1. 1, 1. 2, 2. 1, 2. 2, 2. 3, 3. 1, 3. 2, 3. 3, 4. 1, 4. 2, 5. 1, 5. 2, 6. 1, 6. 2 and 6. 3. †¢Identify the main types of state and independent schools †¢Describe the characteristics of the different types of schools in relation to educational stage(s) and school governance †¢Describe roles and responsibilities of: -School governors -Senior management team -Other statutory roles e. g. SENCO -Teachers †¢Describe the roles of external professionals who may work with a school e. g. ducational psychologist †¢Define the meaning of: -Aims -Values †¢Describe with examples how schools may demonstrate and uphold their aims †¢Describe with examples how schools may demonstrate and uphold their values †¢Identify the laws and codes of practice affecting work in schools †¢Describe why school have policies and procedures †¢Identify the policie s and procedures school may have relating to: -Staff -Pupil welfare -Teaching and learning †¢Identify the roles and responsibilities of national and local government for education policy and practice †¢Describe the role of schools in national olicies relating to children, young people and families †¢Describe the roles of other organisations working with children and young people and how these may impact on the work in schools. Identify the main types of state and independent schools Links to learning outcome 1, assessment criteria 1. 1 AND Describe the characteristics of the different types of schools in relation to educational stage(s) and school governance Links to learning outcome 1, assessment criteria 1. 2 All children in England between the ages of 5 and 16 are entitled to a free place at a state school. There are four main types of state schools that receive funding from the local authority. They all follow the national curriculum and are regularly inspected by OFSTED. Community schools – Run by the local authority, which employ the staff, own the lands and building, and decides which admissions criteria to use. Community schools have strong links with the local community and they usually offer their facilities for childcare and adult learning classes. (I do work placement at a community school) Foundation and trust schools – Foundation schools are run by their own governing body, which employs the staff and sets the admissions criteria. Land and buildings are owned by the governing body or a charitable foundation. Trust schools are like foundation schools but they have an outside partnership which forms a charitable trust. The outside partner could be a business or educational charity. They try to explore new way of working to raise standards. The governing body decides whether to become a trust school with parents having a say. Voluntary-aided schools – Are mainly religious or faith schools. The governing body employs staff and sets the admissions criteria. The school buildings and land is owned by a charity hich could be a religious organisation. They also appoint some of the members of the governing body. Voluntary-controlled schools- Are similar to voluntary-aided schools, but are run by the local authority. The local authority employs the staff and set the admissions criteria. The land and buildings and land are owned by a charity usually a religious organisation, which also appoint some members of the g overning body. There are; Specialist schools- which follow the National Curriculum and focus on a particular subject area like, sports, media or technology. Academies- which are independently managed, they are set up by sponsors from business, faith or voluntary groups in partnership with the Department for Education (DfE) and the local authority. Together they fund the land and buildings, with the government covering the running costs. City Technology Colleges- These are independently managed, non-fee-paying schools in urban areas for pupils of all abilities aged 11 to 18. They are geared towards science, technology and the world of work, offering a range of vocational qualifications as well as GCSEs and A levels. Community and foundation special schools- cater for children with specific special educational needs. These may include physical disabilities or learning difficulties. Faith schools- are mostly run in the same way as other state schools. However, their faith status may be reflected in their religious education curriculum, admissions criteria and staffing policies. Grammar schools- select all or most of their pupils based on academic ability. Maintained boarding schools- offer free tuition, but charge fees for board and lodging. Independent schools- set their own curriculum and admissions policy is usually decided by the governing body and head teacher. They are funded by fees paid by parents and income from investments. Just over half have charitable status. They have to be registered with the DfE, and regularly monitored by OFSTED. http://www. direct. gov. uk/en/Parents/Schoolslearninganddevelopment/ChoosingASchool/DG_4016312 Describe roles and responsibilities of: -School governors -Senior management team -Other statutory roles e. g. SENCO -Teachers Links to learning outcome 2, assessment criteria 2. 1 School governors- work with the school, they work in partnership with the headteacher and staff. Governors do not intervene with the day to day running of the school, unless there is a serious problem. The governing body is also responsible for making sure that the schools finances are managed appropriately. It is also responsible for staffing and personnel management. They will also make decisions on issues involving the curriculum and whether to write new policies. Senior management team- Is responsible for taking interviews, inductions, performance monitoring, and appraisals. They can also deal with complaints and issues with colleagues. Deal with courses and career development. They can hold staff meetings, also be responsible for child protection issues. Have general information about policies. Sort out salary queries. Other statutory roles e. g. SENCO- This person is responsible for coordinating the special needs policies in a setting and advising staff. They will be the line of contact for any outside agencies that need to come into the school to look at individual children with special needs. Teachers- are responsible for the education and welfare of the children in the reception classes and for the communication with Parents and all members of the School community. Specific responsibilities: CURRICULUM †¢ Provide a broad, balanced curriculum based on the Foundation Stage †¢ Plan effectively, using learning objectives, producing long-term, mid term and weekly plans †¢ Organise an appropriate timetable, following School’s guidelines †¢ Arrange visits out of school for the children, to extend learning opportunities †¢ Arrange visitors to come to school, to enrich learning and encourage enquiry ASSESSMENT †¢ Assess children regularly, both formally and informally †¢ Observe individual children in different situations and involved in different activities †¢ Use Baseline Assessment †¢ Keep up to date profiles for all children †¢ Use assessment results to plan appropriate learning programmes Describe the roles of external professionals who may work with a school e. g. educational psychologist Links to learning outcome 2, assessment criteria 2. 2 EDUCATIONAL PSYCOLOGIST Educational psychologists consider how children learn, so are used to helping to identify learning difficulties. They visit schools and settings regularly and work alongside parents and professionals in the setting. PHYSIOTHERAPIST A physiotherapist helps to identify a child’s main physical problems while working alongside other professionals and parents. SPEECH AND LANGUAGE THERAPIST Speech and language therapists work with children who have some difficulties with their language. COMMUNITY PAEDIATRICIAN Paediatricians are manly based in hospitals and clinics. They have specialised training in children’s medicine and children are referred to them via their family doctor for diagnosis. They make regular assessments of hildren’s progress and medical needs. They are able to refer children to other health services such as speech and language therapy and dieticians. COMMUNITY NURSE In some areas community nurses visit schools and settings to help provide advice and support. Integrating health and education is a major focus for the Every Child Matters programme, so some early yea r’s centres will have a community based at the centre. FAMILY DOCTOR (GP) A GP has general training in medicine. GP’s form part of the community health team and act as a base for a child’s ongoing medical treatment and notes. CHILD PSYCHIATRIST Children or young people who are showing depression or emotional difficulties may be referred to child psychiatrist. A child psychiatrist has been trained as a doctor specialising in mental health and is able to prescribe medication as well as being able to consider the underlying issues behind a child’s emotional state. CHILD PSYCHOTHERAPIST A child psychotherapist will work with children or young people who are showing emotional distress by talking through their experiences with them and helping the child to explore these. CHILD PSYCHOLOGIST A child psychologist looks at child’s development and learning in a similar way to an educational psychologist. The main difference between their roles is that a child psychologist may support children in a range of different settings rather than just in the educational context. PLAY THERAPIST A play therapist helps children to explore trauma or experiences through the medium of play. EDUCATIONAL WELFARE OFFICER/EDUCATION SOCIAL WORKER The main function of these professionals is to liaise between home and families in cases where school attendance is infrequent. It is an offence for children over 5 years old not to be in some sort of full-time educational programme. ) SPECIAL NEEDS SUPPPORT TEACHER These teachers travel between schools to visit young people or children in their home or pre-school settings. They are able to help a wide range of children and are often seen as useful sources of support and guidance. CLASSROOM ASSISTANT/LEARNING SUPPORT ASSISTANT Their main purpose is to support an individual child, young person or a group of children or young people within a classroom under direction of the teacher. Social worker The majority of social workers are employed by the local authority, although some are employed by voluntary organisations. They are generally deployed in teams according to specialist areas, for example social workers may be involved in caring for older clients, adoption or fostering work. Social workers can provide guidance and advice as well as practical support for families. RESPITE CARERS Respite carers look after children for short periods of time so that their parents can have some time out. CARERS AND BENEFIT ADVISORS Some settings have career and benefits advisors as part of the team. They can help parents find employment and training courses and give them advice about claiming benefit. Define the meaning of: -Aims -Values Links to learning outcome 2, assessment criteria 2. 3 Aims and Values are usually set out in the schools mission statement. Aims- explain what the school wants to achieve. They are usually set out by the head teacher with support from the community and parents. Values- can be determined by the schools rules, usually include respect for self and others and are closely related to Personal, Social, Health and Economic education (PSHE) and citizenship education. Values are based on moral code. The mission statement from the school I do my work placement at; All children will receive an education that is broad and balanced, that develops their potential and is suited to their needs. They will be given opportunities to discover and develop their talents through curricular and extracurricular activities. The ethos and curriculum of the school will instil values that will encourage independence, self esteem and respect for others. Describe with examples how schools may demonstrate and uphold their aims Links to learning outcome 3, assessment criteria 3. 1 Schools may demonstrate and uphold their aims in a mission statement. For example the school where I do work placement explains that they are committed to encouraging the children to reach their full potential whatever their needs. Describe with examples how schools may demonstrate and uphold their values Links to learning outcome 3, assessment criteria 3. 2 Schools may demonstrate and uphold their values in a mission statement. The mission statement from the school where I do my work placement states that the curriculum and ethos of the school will encourage self esteem, independence and respect for others. Identify the laws and codes of practice affecting work in schools Links to learning outcome 3, assessment criteria 3. 3 There are some laws and codes of practice that affect work in schools which are; Children’s Act 2004; Disability Discrimination Act 1995 and Special Educational Needs Code of Practice; Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. Children’s Act 2004 -it was passed to make sure that duties would be put on local authorities to ensure that all the different services that work with children and their families work more efficiently together. Data Protection Act 1998 – Schools are required to keep information secure and it can only be used for the purpose it was gathered for. Disability Discrimination Act 1995 and Special Educational Needs Code of Practice- Schools are not to discriminate against disabled children this has led to more disabled children in mainstream schools. Health and Safety at Work Act 1974- Designed to protect everyone within the school and give procedures to follow in the event of an accident. Identify the policies and procedures school may have relating to: -Staff -Pupil welfare -Teaching and learning

How Hitler Lost the War Essay

As an influential, forceful person, Adolf Hitler used his articulate speech to empower the Nazi political party. Hitler received complete power as the Chancellor of Germany, after passing the Enabling Act. He utilized the totalitarian power to create the Third Reich, and through military moves and a propaganda movement headed by Joseph Goebbels, he made a great impact on the Germany’s citizens. Hitler influenced the Germans into sharing a deep sentiment of nationalism, and the significance of the Aryan, or â€Å"master,† race. With this widespread attitude and the mobilization of the German military, Hitler spearheaded the second world war. Despite the positive contributors to the German force, Hitler’s many mistakes hindered the armies’ ability to win the war. This included his impulsive demeanor and irresolute tendencies, his errors at Dunkirk, France, and his attack on Ukraine. One significant error made by Hitler occurred when he chose to alternate from bombing the RAF, targeting civilians in British cities instead. This gave the RAF the time and space needed to recuperate, and they were able to recover. Hitler had lost a chance to beat the RAF, since they had been growing weak under the German attack, and would most likely have been done for if the bombing on the RAF had continued. The lack of rest of the Luftwaffe combined with the determination of the British forces brought the Battle of Britain to a stalemate. This terminated the might German air force, and prevented the Germans from completing Operation Sea Lion, a plan to invade England amphibiously, with minimal resistance. With the completion of the operation, the United States would have been less protected from a Nazi invasion. Another of Hitler’s most grievous mistakes was made in his decision at Dunkirk. The Allies experienced a great deal of fear about a German attack through Belgium after the downfalls of the Netherlands, Norway, Belgium, and Denmark to the Germans. The Allies dealt with the German 3-pronged attack, the main force traveling through the Ardennes Forest, the other two through Belgium and the Maginot Line. This surprise approach startled the Allies, mostly since the thought of massive tanks traveling through the Ardennes Forest was incredible. This German movement pushed the Allies to Dunkirk, a location on the English Channel. Hitler then commanded the German forces to turn around, deciding that the Luftwaffe were more suitable to finish the job and win the battle. The Luftwaffe had minimal success after a dense fog obstructing the vision of the Luftwaffe and making it possible for the British to escape to safety. This mistake was prodigious– Hitler’s decision prevented the Germans from wiping out the British army. If this had occurred, Germany would have had a great opportunity to invade Britain amphibiously. However, Hitler did not take advantage of the opportunity, and missed out. Hitler’s â€Å"Rape of the Ukraine† was his most critical of blunders. From the perspective of the Slavs, the Germans seemed to be liberators, come to save the people from the cruel jurisdiction of Stalin. If Hitler had used this to his advantage, he could have had more manpower in his attack of Moscow. Instead, he looked at the Slavs as mongrels, an inferior race. The Ukraines also had more experience dealing with the Russian winter and terrain. However Hitler was unable to look past his prejudice, and shipped the Slavs off to concentration camps to be exterminated. Hitler took their food and treated them uncivilly. Had he done right by these people, he would have gained troops to help in his attack in Moscow, and obtained an ability to use all of his men to defend the Western front, since threats along the Eastern front could have been removed. Adolf Hitler had an uncanny ability to influence immense crowds of people, but his lack of ability in the area of commanding military forces with well thought out strategy essentially led to the downfall of the Germans in World War II. Hitler’s execution of military movements was less then valiant. He made his biggest errors in the Battle of Britain, and his actions at Dunkirk and the Ukraine. This pushed the Germans to an eventual defeat. Hitler’s Third Reich lasted twelve years, and he was never capable of gaining access to the control and influence of the entire world.

Essay on OB Case

Essay on OB Case Essay on OB Case Executive Summary Leaders in SAAS are facing challenges managing their teams and implementing the participative leadership approach. Lack of communication and clear structure and guidance from team leaders has created organizational problems and inter-personal conflicts. Developing a hands-on training program for leaders and team members would help eliminating structural problems of the organization. Alternatively, returning to a more autocratic approach could address the current problems with lack of authority of team leaders and wasting resources. Statement of the Problem Replacing managers by team leaders has led to loss of control and authority over the employees. Team Leaders don’t have the necessary leadership skills and conflict resolution techniques to manage their teams. OA staff are suffering from lack of structure and guidance in their daily routines and there’s no practical procedure on how to achieve and contribute to overall organizational goals and objectives. Causes of the Problem Moving from autocratic leadership, where the managers make the decisions for the team, to a participative approach by empowering the employees, has led to creating conflict and confusion in the teams. The role of the team leader has not been clearly defined for the employees; hence, the OA staff don’t consider them as their superiors anymore and don’t feel obligated to follow the Team Leaders’ instructions strictly. Issues such as inter-personal conflicts remain unresolved within the teams due to absence of an effective leader and mediator. Although, the strategic plan in Exhibit 2 clearly defines the vision and objectives of the company, it does not define a clear implementation plan and performance measurement system. Exhibit 7 defines clear objectives for team Hodgson, but it’s only limited to that specific team. Since Metro teams don’t meet on a regular basis, the objectives are not communicated to the other teams, in order to see if they align with the overall organizational goals and objectives. Hence, there is lack of transparency and cross-functionality between the teams. Resources are not allocated equally across the teams (eg. the country OA team is over- staffed, the budget is not allocated to each particular team) and there is no monitoring system over expenditures and resources of the organization. Implementing a new leadership style and adapting to a new management system can be challenging at first and can create conflicts within the teams. Alternative solutions should be found to finalize the change in the organization and to keep it going when the change is implemented. Decision Criteria and Alternative Solutions Decision criteria considered to evaluate alternatives are time of implementation, expected efficiency (to avoid waste of time in the implementation), number of unresolved conflicts, allocation of resources, organizational culture and industry/sector, experience of similar organizations (other emergency public services like the fire department), and the proportion of routine vs. non-routine tasks. Successful implementation of change in the organization requires that the process is more inclusive, so a participative leadership style is recommended. The decrease of decision levels would increase responsiveness to the day-to-day challenges. Since change is not a routine procedure, ideas of different levels of the organization should be taken into account. In self-managed teams, members are the decision-makers. This leads to high productivity and motivation. While self-managed teams do indeed undertake many of the responsibilities within the organization, they still require a certain degree of control as they could lose direction and require more structure in their teams. Autocratic Leadership, on the other hand, states that team leaders make decisions without consulting their team members, even if their input would be useful. This can be appropriate when decisions need to be made quickly, such as

The Reasons Why You Need to Study Global Business

The Reasons Why You Need to Study Global Business Global business is a term used to describe both international trade and the act of a company doing business in more than one area (i.e. country) of the world. Some examples of well-known global businesses include Google, Apple, and eBay. All of these companies were founded in America, but have since expanded to other areas of the world. In academics, global business encompasses the study of international business. Students learn how to think about business in a global context, meaning that they learn about everything from different cultures to the management of multinational businesses and expansion into international territory. Reasons to Study Global Business There are lots of different reasons to study global business, but there is one primary reason that stands out among all of the others: business has become globalized. Economies and marketplaces around the world are interconnected and more interdependent than ever before. Thanks, in part, to the internet, the transfer of capital, goods, and services knows almost no boundaries. Even the smallest companies are shipping goods from one country to another. This level of integration requires professionals who are knowledgeable about multiple cultures and able to apply this knowledge to selling products and promoting services around the world. Ways to Study Global Business The most obvious way to study global business is through a global business education program at a college, university, or business school. There are a number of academic institutions that offer programs focused specifically on global leadership and international business and management. It is also becoming more common for degree programs to offer global business experiences as part of the curriculum even for students who are majoring in something like accounting or marketing rather than international business. These experiences may be known as global business, experiential, or study abroad experiences. For example, University of Virginias Darden School of Business provides MBA students with the opportunity to take a 1 to 2 week themed course that combines structured classes with visits to government agencies, businesses, and cultural sites. International internships or training programs can also provide a unique way to immerse yourself in global business. The Anheuser-Busch company, for example, offers a 10-month Global Management Trainee Program that is designed to immerse bachelor degree holders in global business and allow them to learn from the inside out. Top-Notch Global Business Programs There are literally hundreds of business schools that offer global business programs. If you are studying at the graduate level, and youre interested in attending a top-tier program, you may want to start your search for the perfect school with this list of high-ranking programs with global experiences: Stanford Graduate School of Business - At Stanford, every MBA student is required to participate in global experiences to increase their knowledge of international business and management. While participating in the schools Global Management Immersion Experience (GMIX), students live and work in another country and learn about global business through complete immersion.Harvard Business School - Harvard curriculum combines the case method with the field method. Part of the field method involves global intelligence, which requires students to gain real-world experience by developing a new product or service for one of Harvards global partner organizations.Kellogg School of Management at Northwest University - Kelloggs global MBA curriculum requires students to partner with other international students to gain an understanding of international markets and develop market-based growth strategies for international organizations.

Economic globalization reduces the possibility of conflict Essay

Economic globalization reduces the possibility of conflict - Essay Example From a critical point of view, when countries learn to depend on each other, they form long lasting relationships as the feel that they need each other for survival. On this note, they are committed to maintain harmony to ensure that this interdependence works out for all of them and that each country can uplift their economy. Since countries are unique entities with different resources, it is true that globalizing the economy will ensure that conflicts are reduced and each country can depend on its allies. On this ground, it is clear that the harmony that the world enjoys today is a result of health relationships that have resulted from the formation of a global economy. The end of the 20th century and the 21st century is a time when the world has experience harmony as a result of reduced conflict. The world economy structure has changed due to the formation of a global market where countries are free to venture. Unlike in the post war period, countries are free to invest across the world due to reduced barriers of foreign business entrants. As Barbie (1996) points out, there has been great economic integration to the extent that it is impossible to tell where a product was manufactured. Barbie gives the example of goods that are â€Å"made in China† but have actually been produced through operation integration. Countries have come together to venture in common markets to the extent of collaboratively producing one product. As countries exhaust their domestic markets, they are free to invest in foreign markets in the onset of market liberalization. In the 21st century business organizations have ventured in international markets to increase t heir profits by investing in unexploited markets. This kind of economic integration has resulted into reduced rivalry as countries learn that the domestic market is not enough for economic development. As a result, the new century has seen the number inter country wars reduced due to the economic cohesion that

Interprise and innovation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Interprise and innovation - Essay Example Inviting thousands of athletes around the world to participate in various sports competitions is bound to create not only new job and business opportunities for many people but also the re-development and improvement of the public transportation, hotels, and other related infrastructure such as the Wembley Stadium, the All England Club at Wimbledon, the Greenwich Park, and the Earls Court among others (London 2012, 2010). In line with this, the large traffic of people who look forward to attend the Olympic Games attracts few of the large-scale companies to promote their consumer products to the public. Coca-cola is one of the official sponsors or Worldwide partners of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games (London 2012, 2010b). Based on UK demographic profile of UK’s prospective audiences, this report will tackle the proposed Coca-Cola product suitable for a target audience during the Olympics. Eventually, the number of perceived substitutes and the proportion of income spent on goods will be tackled to determine the PeD for Coca-Cola during a major event like the Olympics. Using a diagram, the effects of advertising the proposed Coca-Cola product will be assessed as to whether or not the advertising impact could cause the demand curve to shift to left or right. The London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games LOCOG aims to promote global diversity as part of the 2012 Olympic Games strategy (Open. The world in a city. Diversity and Inclusion Strategy, 2008, p. 1). Regardless of age, gender, educational attainment, disability, religion, political, economic, and cultural differences of Coca-Cola’s target audiences, it remains a fact that the London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games is working together with GLA, Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA), UK and London Government, and Trade Unions to ensure that the London 2012 Games will create a sporting environment that is suitable for all audiences (Open. The world

Solid Waste Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Solid Waste - Essay Example This author will discuss solid waste concerns; will provide details on the factors that contribute to the problem, as well as the factors that are affected by it; will tackle the positive and negative impacts; will present and evaluate the present sustainability strategies and solutions; and will discuss the required government, societal and global support. In addition, this author’s personal plan to reach sustainability will be discussed, showing how each goal should be conducted. Solid Waste Solid waste, as defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), is any type of refuse, or slush coming from treatment plants of wastewater and water supply, or mire emanated from pollution control facilities and other throw-away materials from residential, commercial, industrial and institutional sources, and from mining and agricultural operations. Almost all of mankind’s activities create wastes. In 2006, American residents, industries, and institutions actua lly generated over 250 million tons of municipal solid waste. The average American produces waste on a rate of approximately 4.6 pounds per day.  Moreover, a yearly 7.6 billion tons of industrial solid waste are produced and discarded from the U.S. industrial sector (U.S. EPA, 2003). Solid waste management comprises waste reduction, recycling, incineration, composting and landfills. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency confirmed that one-third of solid waste is recycled; one-seventh is incinerated; and one-half goes to landfills. The greater part of environmental harm and ecosystem damage is caused by the behavior of mankind. The growing waste generation, alongside the escalating population and excessive production of material goods will unconstructively affect the human health and the environment (Chase, et al, 2009). With the American households and businesses continuously generating trash, creating an effective national waste management program is difficult. On the local le vel, states and municipalities, in accordance with the requirements, requests and concerns of individual communities, have implemented solid waste programs for waste collection, transport and disposal, together with waste reduction, reuse and recycling. On the other hand, the responsibility of EPA in waste management is to set objectives and provide leadership, technological assistance, education and training (U.S. EPA, 2003). Factors that Contribute to or are Affected by the Problem In 2001, paper products comprised the biggest factor of municipal solid waste or MSW (36 %); yard wastes made up the second-biggest factor (12 percent); food scraps, glass, metals, synthetics, and lumber formed 5 to 12 % of the entire municipal solid waste; leather, rubber, and fabrics constituted 7% of MSW; and other various wastes comprised more or less 3 % of MSW (U.S. EPA, 2003). As the economy develops and the population increases, waste production amplifies as well. Improper solid waste management through uncontrolled dumping and incineration can cause health and environmental hazards, such as water contamination; breeding places for insects and rodents; flood increase from drainage obstructions; greenhouse gas emissions; disease outbreaks; and fire risks (U.S. EPA, 2002). Benefits of Formal Recycling and Composting Programs Well-managed recycling and composting programs could be advantageous to both the ecology and the economy. Organized disposal programs could